Electrochemistry of lead and lead alloy anodes in lead-acid batteries for photovoltaic energy storage.

Abstract

The performance of lead-acid batteries for energy storage in photovoltaic/diesel/battery hybrid systems strongly depends on several electrochemical and/or operational factors such as the alloying elements incorporated in the electrode plates, the addition of expander materials to the anode or to the electrolyte, temperature, and the charging regime of the battery. In this study, the influences of the above mentioned factors on battery performance were investigated using cyclic voltammetry and potentiostatic transient techniques supplemented by surface analysis techniques including scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The behaviour of binary lead-calcium and lead-antimony, and ternary lead-calcium-tin and lead-antimony-selenium alloy anodes were compared to that of the pure lead anode. In addition, the effect of ammonium ligno-sulphonate (ALS), as an expander added to the electrolyte, on the anode behaviour, was studied at room (23$\sp\circ$C) and cold (0$\sp\circ$C) temperatures.